top of page
References
  1. Busch W. Aus der Sitzung der medicinischen Section vom 13 November 1867. Berlin Klin Wochenschr. 1868;5:137.

  2. Fehleisen F. Ueber die Züchtung der Erysipelkokken auf künstlichem Nährboden und ihre Übertragbarkeit auf den Menschen. Dtsch Med Wochenschr. 1882;8:553–554.

  3. Coley WB. The treatment of malignant tumors by repeated inoculations of erysipelas. With a report of ten original cases. Am J Medical Sciences. 1893;105:487–511.

  4. Coley WB. The treatment of sarcoma with the mixed toxins of erysipelas and Bacillus prodigiosus. Boston Med Surg J. 1908;158:175–182.

  5. Cancer Research Institute. From theory to therapy: the history of cancer immunotherapy. 2025. Available at: https://www.cancerresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/History-of-Cancer-Immunotherapy-25_06192025_rt.pdf. Accessed on January 7, 2026.

  6. Eggermont AM. The immunotherapy journey – what’s new: cytokines, bispecific MoAbs. Presented at the ESMO Immuno-Oncology Congress 2025. London (United Kingdom): December 10, 2025. 

  7. Diab A, Tannir NM, Bentebibel SE, et al. Bempegaldesleukin (NKTR-214) plus nivolumab in patients with advanced solid tumors: Phase I dose-escalation study of safety, efficacy, and immune activation (PIVOT-02). Cancer Discov. 2020;10(8):1158–1173.

  8. Diab A, Gogas H, Sandhu S, et al. Bempegaldesleukin plus nivolumab in untreated advanced melanoma: the open-label, Phase III PIVOT IO 001 trial results. J Clin Oncol. 2023;41(30):4756–4767.

  9. Xiong A, Wang L, Chen J, et al. Ivonescimab versus pembrolizumab for PD-L1-positive non-small cell lung cancer (HARMONi-2): a randomised, double-blind, phase 3 study in China. Lancet. 2025;405(10481):839–849.

  10. Lu S, Yang F, Jiang Z, et al. Phase III study of ivonescimab plus chemotherapy versus tislelizumab plus chemotherapy as first-line treatment for advanced squamous non-small cell lung cancer (HARMONI-6). Presented at the 2025 ESMO Congress. Berlin (Germany): October 17–25, 2025.

  11. Qu W, Gao J, Zhang B, et al. Cadonilimab combined with taxane and cisplatin as the first-line treatment of advanced esophageal squamous cell carcinoma: an open-label, multicenter phase II trial. J Immunother Cancer. 2025;13(10):e012869.

  12. Hauschild A, Hassel JC, Ziemer M, et al. Phase 3 study (PIVOTAL) of neoadjuvant intralesional Daromun versus immediate surgery in fully resectable melanoma with regional skin and/or nodal metastases (LBA9501). Presented at the 2024 Annual Meeting of the American Society of Clinical Oncology. Chicago (IL): 31 May-4 June 2024.

  13. Wong MK, In GK, Sacco JJ, et al. Response analysis for injected and non-injected lesions and the safety and efficacy of superficial and deep/visceral RP1 injection in the registrational cohort of anti-PD-1-failed melanoma patients if the IGNYTE trial. Presented at the MELANOMA BRIDGE 2025 Conference. Naples (Italy): December 4–6, 2025.

  14. Nally E. The ADC boom: a new era in oncology. Presented at the ESMO Immuno-Oncology Congress 2025. London (United Kingdom): December 12, 2025.

  15. Cortés J, Hurvitz SA, Im SA, et al. Trastuzumab deruxtecan versus trastuzumab emtansine in HER2-positive metastatic breast cancer: long-term survival analysis of the DESTINY-Breast03 trial. Nat Med. 2024;30(8):2208–2215.

  16. Modi S, Jacot W, Yamashita T, et al; DESTINY-Breast04 Investigators. Trastuzumab deruxtecan in previously treated HER2-low advanced breast cancer. N Engl J Med. 2022;387(1):9–20.

  17. Bardia A, Hurvitz SA, Tolaney SM, et al. Sacituzumab govitecan in metastatic triple-negative breast cancer. N Engl J Med. 2021;384(16):1529-1541.

  18. Bardia A, Jhaveri K, Im SA, et al; TROPION-Breast01 Investigators. Datopotamab deruxtecan versus chemotherapy in previously treated inoperable/metastatic hormone receptor-positive human epidermal growth factor receptor 2-negative breast cancer: primary results from TROPION-Breast01. J Clin Oncol. 2025;43(3):285–296.

  19. Yin Y, Fan Y, Ouyang Q, et al. Sacituzumab tirumotecan in previously treated metastatic triple-negative breast cancer: a randomized phase 3 trial. Nat Med. 2025;31(6):1969–1975.

  20. Powles T, Csőszi T, Özgüroğlu M, et al; KEYNOTE-361 Investigators. Pembrolizumab alone or combined with chemotherapy versus chemotherapy as first-line therapy for advanced urothelial carcinoma (KEYNOTE-361): a randomised, open-label, phase 3 trial. Lancet Oncol. 2021;22(7):931–945.

  21. Galsky MD, Arija JÁA, Bamias A, et al; IMvigor130 Study Group. Galsky MD, Atezolizumab with or without chemotherapy in metastatic urothelial cancer (IMvigor130): a multicentre, randomised, placebo-controlled phase 3 trial. Lancet. 2020;395(10236):1547–1557.

  22. Powles T, van der Heijden MS, Castellano D, et al; DANUBE study investigators. Durvalumab alone and durvalumab plus tremelimumab versus chemotherapy in previously untreated patients with unresectable, locally advanced or metastatic urothelial carcinoma (DANUBE): a randomised, open-label, multicentre, phase 3 trial. Lancet Oncol. 2020;21(12):1574–1588.

  23. Powles T, Perez-Valderrama BP, Gupta S, et al. Enfortumab vedotin and pembrolizumab in untreated advanced urothelial cancer. N Engl J Med. 2024;390(10):875–888.

  24. PADCEV® (enfortumab vedotin-ejfv) Prescribing Information. Astellas Pharma US, Inc. Revised November 2025.

  25. PADCEV® (enfortumab vedotin-ejfv) Product Information. Astellas Pharma Europe B.V. Last updated: September 25, 2025.

  26. Fang W, Wu L, Meng X, et al. Sacituzumab tirumotecan in EGFR-TKI-resistant, EGFR-mutated advanced NSCLC. N Engl J Med. 2026;394(1):13–26.

  27. Buisseret L. ADC plus immune checkpoint blockade combinations: Status and perspectives. Presented at the ESMO Immuno-Oncology Congress 2025. London (United Kingdom): December 12, 2025.

  28. Moore KN, Angelergues A, Konecny GE, et al. Mirvetuximab soravtansine in Frα-positive, platinum-resistant ovarian cancer. N Engl J Med. 2023;389(23):2162–2174.

  29. Matulonis UA, Vergote I, Moore KN, et al. Safety and efficacy of mirvetuximab soravtansine, a folate receptor alpha (FRα)-targeting antibody-drug conjugate (ADC), in combination with pembrolizumab in patients with platinum-resistant ovarian cancer. Gynecol Oncol. 2025;200:96–104.

  30. Vergote I, González-Martín A, Fujiwara K, et al; innovaTV 301/ENGOT-cx12/GOG-3057 Collaborators. Tisotumab vedotin as second- or third-line therapy for recurrent cervical cancer. N Engl J Med. 2024;391(1):44–55.

  31. Vergote I, Van Nieuwenhuysen E, O’Cearbhaill RE, et al. Tisotumab vedotin in combination with carboplatin, pembrolizumab, or bevacizumab in recurrent or metastatic cervical cancer: results from the innovaTV 205/GOG-3024/ENGOT-cx8 study. J Clin Oncol. 2023;41(36):5536–5549.

  32. Tolaney SM, de Azambuja E, Kalinsky K, et al. Sacituzumab govitecan (SG) + pembrolizumab (pembro) vs chemotherapy (chemo) + pembro in previously untreated PD-L1–positive advanced triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC): Primary results from the randomized phase 3 ASCENT-04/KEYNOTE-D19 study. J Clin Oncol. 2025;43(17 suppl): LBA109.

  33. Levy B. TROPION-Lung02: Datopotamab deruxtecan (Dato-DXd) plus pembrolizumab (pembro) with or without platinum chemotherapy (Pt-CT) as first-line (1L) therapy for advanced non-small cell lung cancer (aNSCLC). Presented at the 2025 ASCO Annual Meeting. Chicago (IL): June 1, 2025. Abstract 8501.

  34. Tarantino P, Ricciuti B, Pradhan SM, Tolaney SM. Optimizing the safety of antibody-drug conjugates for patients with solid tumors. Nat Rev Clin Oncol. 2023;20(8):558–576.

  35. Warner AB, Hamid O, Komanduri K, et al. Expert consensus guidelines on management and best practices for tumor-infiltrating lymphocyte cell therapy. J Immunother Cancer. 2024;12(2):e008735.

  36. Tsai KK, Komanduri KV. Tumor-infiltrating lymphocyte therapy for the treatment of metastatic melanoma. Am J Clin Dermatol. 2025;26(5):733–745.

  37. Borch TH, Andersen R, Ellebaek E, Met Ö, Dinia M, Svane IM. Future role for adoptive T-cell therapy in checkpoint inhibitor-resistant metastatic melanoma. J Immunother Cancer. 2020;8(2):e000668.

  38. Gros A. Novel personalised T cell therapies. Presented at the ESMO Immuno-Oncology Congress 2025. London (United Kingdom): December 11, 2025.

  39. Garcia Garijo A. Exploiting circulating lymphocytes and cell-free DNA as a source to develop minimally-invasive personalized T-cell therapies. Doctoral thesis; published May 26, 2023.  Available at: https://hdl.handle.net/2445/200261. Accessed on January 13, 2026.

  40. Psyrri A. New approaches in IO refractory H&N cancer. Presented at the ESMO Immuno-Oncology Congress 2025. London (United Kingdom): December 11, 2025.

  41. Fayette J, Popovtzer A, Forster MD, et al. Dose expansion data from iintune-1, a phase 1/2 study of the STING agonist dazostinag plus pembrolizumab as first-line (1L), in patients with recurrent/metastatic squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck (RM-SCCHN). J Clin Oncol. 2025;43(16 suppl):6020.

  42. Li ZM, Zhou Y, Lin J, et al. 1389P Preliminary results of phase II study to evaluate safety and efficacy of becotatug vedotin in combination with pucotenlimab as first-line treatment for recurrent or metastatic squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck (R/M-SCCHN). ESMO Ann Oncol. 2025;36(suppl 2):S797.

  43. Adkins D, Wong W, Misleh JG, et al. Phase 2 trial of ozuriftamab vedotin (BA3021), a conditionally binding ROR2-ADC, in patients with heavily pretreated squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck. J Clin Oncol. 2025;43(16 suppl):6048.

  44. Chung CH, Hanna GJ, Zandberg DP, et al. Ficerafusp alfa with pembrolizumab in patients with recurrent or metastatic head and neck squamous cell carcinoma: Updated results from an expansion cohort of an open-label, multicenter, phase 1/1b trial. J Clin Oncol. 2025;43(16 suppl):6017.

  45. Harrington KJ, Rosenberg A, Yang MH, et al. 1327MO Amivantamab in recurrent/metastatic head & neck squamous cell cancer (HNSCC) after disease progression on checkpoint inhibition and chemotherapy: Results from the phase Ib/II OrigAMI-4 study. ESMO Ann Oncol. 2025;36(suppl 2):S773.

  46. Van Herpen CML, Daste A, Arrazubi V, et al. Petosemtamab (MCLA-158) with pembrolizumab as first-line (1L) treatment of PD-L1+ recurrent/metastatic (r/m) head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC): Phase 2 trial. J Clin Oncol. 2025;43(16 suppl):6024.

  47. Vivier É. Harnessing NK cells to overcome resistance to checkpoint blockade. Presented at the ESMO Immuno-Oncology Congress 2025. London (United Kingdom): December 11, 2025.

  48. Vivier E, Rebuffet L, Narni-Mancinelli E, Cornen S, Igarashi RY, Fantin VR. Natural killer cell therapies. Nature. 2024;626(8000):727–736.

  49. Rebuffet L, Melsen JE, Escalière B, et al. High-dimensional single-cell analysis of human natural killer cell heterogeneity. Nat Immunol. 2024;25(8):1474–1488.

  50. André P, Denis C, Soulas C, et al. Anti-NKG2A mAb is a checkpoint inhibitor that promotes anti-tumor immunity by unleashing both T and NK cells. Cell. 2018;175(7):1731–1743.e13.

  51. Herbst RS, Majem M, Barlesi F, et al. COAST: An open-label, Phase II, multidrug platform study of durvalumab alone or in combination with oleclumab or monalizumab in patients with unresectable, Stage III non-small-cell lung cancer. J Clin Oncol. 2022;40(29):3383–3393.

  52. Barlesi F, Cho BC, Goldberg SB, et al. PACIFIC-9: Phase III trial of durvalumab + oleclumab or monalizumab in unresectable stage III non-small-cell lung cancer. Future Oncol. 2024;20(29):2137–2147.

  53. Gauthier L, Morel A, Anceriz N, et al. Multifunctional natural killer cell engagers targeting NKp46 trigger protective tumor immunity. Cell. 2019;177(7):1701-1713.e16.

  54. Innate Pharma. SAR’579/IPH101 receives FDA fast track designation in the US for the treatment of hematological malignancies. June 8, 2023. Available at: https://www.innate-pharma.com/media/all-press-releases/sar579/iph6101-receives-fda-fast-track-designation-us-treatment-hematological-malignancies. Accessed on January 7, 2026.

  55. Nieto Y, Banerjee P, Kaur I, et al. Allogeneic NK cells with a bispecific innate cell engager in refractory relapsed lymphoma: a phase 1 trial. Nat Med. 2025;31(6):1987-1993.

  56. Pardoll D. A new concept on how to turn cold tumors hot. Presented at the ESMO Immuno-Oncology Congress 2025. London (United Kingdom): December 11, 2025.

  57. Tselikas L. Options at oligoprogression in IO: RT or IR or surgery. Presented at the ESMO Immuno-Oncology Congress 2025. London (United Kingdom): December 12, 2025.

  58. Patel PH, Palma D, McDonald F, Tree AC. The dandelion dilemma revisited for oligoprogression: treat the whole lawn or weed selectively? Clin Oncol (R Coll Radiol). 2019;31(12):824–833.

  59. Deschamps F, Tselikas L, Yevich S, et al. Electrochemotherapy in radiotherapy-resistant epidural spinal cord compression in metastatic cancer patients. Eur J Cancer. 2023:186:62–68.

  60. Rheinheimer S, Heussel CP, Mayer P, et al. Oligoprogressive non-small-cell lung cancer under treatment with PD-(L)1 inhibitors. Cancers (Basel). 2020;12(4):1046.

  61. Bonnet B, Tournier L, Deschamps F, et al. Thermal ablation combined with immune checkpoint blockers: a 10-year monocentric experience. Cancers (Basel). 2024;16(5):855.

  62. Kostine M, Finckh A, Bingham CO, et al. EULAR points to consider for the diagnosis and management of rheumatic immune-related adverse events due to cancer immunotherapy with checkpoint inhibitors. Ann Rheum Dis. 2021;80(1):36–48.

  63. Naidoo J. Monitoring of side effects in patients undergoing immunotherapy. Presented at the ESMO Immuno-Oncology Congress 2025. London (United Kingdom): December 12, 2025.

  64. Naidoo J, Murphy C, Atkins MB, et al. Society for Immunotherapy of Cancer (SITC) consensus definitions for immune checkpoint inhibitor-associated immune-related adverse events (irAEs) terminology. J Immunother Cancer. 2023;11(3):e006398.

  65. Haanen J, Obeid M, Spain L, et al. Management of toxicities from immunotherapy: ESMO Clinical Practice Guideline for diagnosis, treatment and follow-up. Ann Oncol. 2022;33(12):1217–1238.

  66. Schneider BJ, Naidoo J, Santomasso BD, et al. Management of immune-related adverse events in patients treated with immune checkpoint inhibitor therapy: ASCO guideline update. J Clin Oncol. 2021;39(36):4073–4126.

  67. Nigro O, Pinotti G, De Galitiis F, et al. Late immune-related adverse events in long-term responders to PD-1/PD-L1 checkpoint inhibitors: A multicentre study. Eur J Cancer. 2020;134:19–28.

  68. Johnson DB, Nebhan CA, Moslehi JJ, Balko JM. Immune-checkpoint inhibitors: long-term implications of toxicity. Nat Rev Clin Oncol. 2022;19(4):254–267.

  69. Naidoo J, Wang X, Woo KM, et al. Pneumonitis in patients treated with anti-programmed death-1/programmed death ligand 1 therapy. J Clin Oncol. 2017;35(7):709–717.

  70. Naidoo J, Johnson D, Possick J, et al. Patient-level analysis of pneumonitis from clinical trials of nivolumab-based regimens in solid tumor. Presented at the 2025 ESMO Congress. Berlin (Germany): October 17-25, 2025. Abstract 2799O.

  71. Hu JR, Florido R, Lipson EJ, et al. Cardiovascular toxicities associated with immune checkpoint inhibitors. Cardiovasc Res. 2019;115(5):854–868.

  72. Wang DY, Salem JE, Cohen JV, et al. Fatal toxic effects associated with immune checkpoint inhibitors: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Oncol. 2018;4(12):1721–1728.

  73. Cheng E, Ivanovic M, Chan A, et al. Cardiac troponin screening and clinical outcomes in patients receiving immunotherapy. JACC CardioOncol. 2025;7(6):708–721.

  74. Lehmann LH, Cautela J, Palaskas N, et al. Clinical strategy for the diagnosis and treatment of immune checkpoint inhibitor-associated myocarditis: a narrative review. JAMA Cardiol. 2021;6(11):1329–1337.

  75. Lyon AR, López-Fernández T, Couch LS, et al; ESC Scientific Document Group. 2022 ESC Guidelines on cardio-oncology developed in collaboration with the European Hematology Association (EHA), the European Society for Therapeutic Radiology and Oncology (ESTRO) and the International Cardio-Oncology Society (IC-OS). Eur Heart J. 2022;43(41):4229–4361.

  76. Moreira A, Loquai C, Pföhler C, et al. Myositis and neuromuscular side-effects induced by immune checkpoint inhibitors. Eur J Cancer. 2019:106:12–23.

  77. Naidoo J, Zhang J, Lipson EJ, et al. A multidisciplinary toxicity team for cancer immunotherapy-related adverse events. J Natl Compr Canc Netw. 2019;17(6):712–720.

  78. Kennedy LC, Bhatia S, Thompson JA, Grivas P. Preexisting autoimmune disease: implications for immune checkpoint inhibitor therapy in solid tumors. J Natl Compr Canc Netw. 2019;17(6):750–757.

  79. Hanna GJ, Dharanesswaran H, Giobbie-Hurder A, et al. Cemiplimab for kidney transplant recipients with advanced cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma. J Clin Oncol. 2024;42(9):1021–1030.

  80. Carroll RP, Boyer M, Gebski V, et al. Immune checkpoint inhibitors in kidney transplant recipients: a multicentre, single-arm, phase 1 study. Lancet Oncol. 2022;23(8):1078–1086.

  81. Koyfman SA, Geiger JL. Checkpoint inhibition for kidney transplant recipients with advanced cutaneous carcinomas: an emerging standard for select patients. J Clin Oncol. 2024;42(9):981–983.

SNELL Medical Communication acknowledges that it has received arm’s length educational funding from Apobiologix to support the development and distribution of this educational publication. The acceptance of funding was contingent upon the sponsors’ adherence to SNELL Medical Communication’s policy designed to preserve the educational integrity of the publication. This policy ensures that the authors will at all times exercise unrestricted, rigorous, scientific independence free of interference from any other party. 

©2026 Published by SNELL Medical Communication Inc. through arm’s length educational funding from Apobiologix. All rights reserved. The opinions expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect those of the publisher or its educational sponsor, but rather are those of the authors based on the available scientific literature. The administration of any therapies discussed or referred to should always be consistent with the recognized prescribing information as required in Canada. SNELL Medical Communication Inc. is committed to the development of superior Continuing Medical Education.

bottom of page